Exploding demand for higher education worldwide

International student enrollment is on the rise at U.S. colleges.

In total, 764,495 international students were enrolled at colleges and universities across the United States during the 2011-2012 school year, up 5.7 percent from the previous year, according to a November 2012 report from the Institute of International Education.

The U.S. News Best Colleges rankings can help prospective American and international students refine their list of target schools in the United States, but some of the world’s best universities can be found outside the U.S. as well.

China, Australia, the United Kingdom, Germany and France all attract more than 100,000 international students each year, according to IIE data.

Latin America, the Middle East and other parts of Asia have also seen an uptick in international student enrollment over the past decade, according to a study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

One explanation for the trend toward international education: an “exploding demand for higher education worldwide,” the OECD notes.

Studying in a foreign country – whether for a semester, a year or for an entire degree – also helps prepare students to enter a high-tech and highly global economy, says Allan Goodman, president of IIE.

Executives at multinational corporations might work in nine or 10 different countries throughout their career. Those who stay closer to home will likely still work with people from other cultures on a regular basis, says Goodman, who co-authored “A Student Guide to Study Abroad.”

“If you’re the top student, but you’ve never sat next to a Chinese or Brazilian, or had an argument with an Indian or a discussion with a Frenchman, you’re not going to be prepared to be a worker in the global marketplace,” he says.

Sorting out where to study and why can be a multipronged equation.

For some, language is a primary factor. Students either want to learn in their native language or become fluent in another. Others want to gain business expertise abroad in order to get a leg up in an increasingly competitive workforce.

Many international students also choose where to study based on where they hope to start their careers, says Daniel Obst, IIE’s deputy vice president of international partnerships in higher education.

“There’s a great opportunity in another country to do academic work, but also then connect it to your first job,” he says.

Obst has personal experience as an international student. Born and raised in Germany, Obst earned his bachelor’s degree in the United States and his master’s in England. His academic interests motivated him to study outside of Germany, he says.

“I wanted to do international relations, and back then they didn’t have that as a degree program in Germany. They had political science,” he says.

Whatever the motive to study overseas, each major region has something to offer students bent on studying overseas.

Europe

International students accounted for 18.6 percent of total higher ed enrollment in the U.K. in 2010-2011, according to IIE.

Students can venture outside of the U.K. and still get a great education in Europe.

Schools such as the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Ecole Normale Superieure de Paris, the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg in Germany also have strong global reputations.

Asia

Students from China, India and South Korea account for 52 percent of the 4.1 million international students worldwide, according to the OECD. But the region has also emerged as a top destination for foreign students.

The true aims of the Terror War

waristerrorBy Chris Floyd.

The moral insanity of the Terror War continues to spawn more violence, more extremism, more repression, more injustice, and the total subversion of the “Western values,” all of which it is ostensibly designed to defend.

A new piece by Patrick Cockburn in the Independent provides a grimly illuminating look at this insanity in action on a specific front: Syria. It’s worth reading in full, but here is an excerpt:

The Syrian war has turned into a Syrian version of the Thirty Years War in Germany four centuries ago. Too many conflicts and too many players have become involved for any peace terms to be acceptable to all.. … It has become increasingly obvious over the past year that al-Qa’ida type movements, notably Isis, Jabhat al-Nusra and Ahrar al-Sham, have come to dominate or can operate freely in a great swathe of territory across northern Iraq and northern Syria. This gives Isis a vast hinterland in which it can manoeuvre and fight on both sides of what is a largely nominal Syrian-Iraqi border. …

Europeans have not yet woken up to the significance of these anarchic zones opening up on the shores of the Mediterranean in Syria and Libya. This is because the threat has been largely abstract but it is getting less so with the attack on the Jewish Museum in Brussels by a French jihadi who had been in Syria. US and European politicians do not want to explain why, 13 years after 9/11, when the “war on terror” was supposedly launched, thousands of al-Qa’ida militants have been able to carve out enclaves so close to Europe.

US and European politicians won’t explain it because any honest explanation would expose the emptiness at the core of all their proffered reasons for the Terror War. They can’t explain it because the Terror War system — including the increasing militarization and repression in their own countries — has now become organizing principle of Western society. Or rather, it is the latest incarnation of what has been the guiding principle of Western society since World War II: organizing society and the economy around war, either active war or the ever-present “threat” of war (assiduously exaggerated — or even manufactured — at every turn). For government and big business, the immense power and profit and control they inevitably accrued from conducting total war on a global basis was far too enticing to give up once the war was over. The full mobilization of society’s resources for war simply carried on; indeed, was expanded and amplified.

However, the war also had a life-transforming impact on many of its survivors. The savagery and loss — and the class-effacing comradeship — they had experienced during the war imbued millions of people with a burning desire to change society for the better, to do away with the poverty and injustices of the past, and build a better, more decent, more peaceful world. This spirit is evoked with remarkable power in a new book, Harry’s Last Stand, by Harry Leslie Smith, a 91-year-old WII veteran enraged to see the neoliberal extremists that have held sway in the US and Britain for more than 30 years sweeping away the progress toward a more just society that his generation tried to build on the ruins of the war. (Some of Smith’s writing can be found here and here.)

Source: Empire Burlesque

Budget airline tickets fuel illegal immigration into Europe, warns EU border chief

immigration_europe_illegalIllegal immigration into Europe is being fuelled by airlines that sell budget tickets from North Africa for as little as £120, a senior European border control official has warned.

Migrants buy low-cost, one-way tickets from Morocco and Algeria to Turkey and then slip into Europe via Turkey’s porous land borders with Greece and Bulgaria, according to Gil Arias, the deputy executive director of Frontex.

They are able to take advantage of a recent policy of so-called “visa diplomacy” on the part of Turkey, which has sought to expand its influence in the Middle East by relaxing visa restrictions for citizens from other Muslim nations.

The route is quicker and safer than taking a people-smuggling boat across the Mediterranean. Two such vessels sank earlier this month in the waters between Libya and Lampedusa in Italy, with the loss of more than 500 lives.

“Due to this visa policy by Turkey to the North African nations, people are flying to Istanbul on cheap flights and then on to Greece and more recently, Bulgaria,” said Mr Arias, who previously served as a police inspector and border control official in Spain. “When they get there they discard their travel documents, and will sometimes pretend to be either Palestinians or Syrians in order to try to claim refugee status.”

 There is no suggestion that airlines are complicit in illegal immigration, but Mr Arias said Frontex was powerless to stop them carrying such passengers – mainly Moroccan and Algerian passport holders. He said there was no evidence in advance that the passengers were planning to cross into the European Union.

His comments come at a time of growing tensions between European Union nations over how to tackle illegal immigration and who should share the burden. In Greece, public anxiety over the influx has helped in the rise of the Far-Right Golden Dawn party.

Last week, Bulgaria announced that it was planning to spend £2.2?million on a fence to limit the number of Syrian migrants fleeing the country’s civil war.

The 20-mile long fence will go around the mountainous region of Elhovo, one of the most difficult areas to police, after the arrival of 6,800 migrants – 70 per cent of them Syrian – since the start of the year. Bulgaria, which the EU’s poorest member, has demanded extra Brussels aid to deal with the problem. – telegraph.co.uk

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UK politicians urge Prince Charles to abdicate

Taking himself seriously
Taking himself seriously

Some UK politicians say Prince Charles should abdicate the throne and stand for an election if he wants to express his political views, local media reported.

Prince Charles’ remarks about Russian President Vladimir Putin have sparked great controversy both in the UK and Russia.

Sir Tony Brenton, who served as British Ambassador to Russia in 2004-2008, told the BBC, “You can’t be much more insulting about a Russian than to compare him to Hitler, who killed 26 million Russians,” according to Itar-Tass.

Nigel Farage, leader of the UK Independence Party, says Prince Charles was wrong in his comparisons. Farage went on to blame the EU and NATO for expansionist policy in Eastern Europe.

Labor MP Mike Gapes also commented on Prince Charles’ comparison: “If he wishes to be in public life speaking out, saying what he thinks on every issue then unfortunately he should abdicate and stand for election.” Gapes also stressed that he thinks the British monarchy should be seen and not heard. He said the “freedom of speech argument” does not apply to Prince Charles.

Source: Voice of Russia

 

‘US and West provoked Ukrainian crisis’

Vaclav Klaus
Vaclav Klaus

The West and the United States provoked the Ukrainian crisis, former President of the Czech Republic Vaclav Klaus said in an interview to Czech television (CT24).

“I think that not Russia is to blame for the outbreak in Kiev on the Maidan (Independence Square). Western Europe and the United States aggravated the situation,” he said.

“I had told them from the very beginning not to exert pressure on Ukraine, as it will only destroy and disintegrate it. Unfortunately, that is exactly what has happened,” Klaus said.

At present, in his view, the country is undergoing a difficult satge, and it is hard to “clearly say whether it wants to rely on the West or on Russia.” However, Ukraine should independently decide its own future.

“Let them determine their future for themselves – without any interference from outside,” the former Czech president said.

Source: ITAR-TASS

The new silk road, from China’s factories to the heart of Europe

silkrailIt is one of the world’s longest railways — an approximately 11,000-kilometre “modern-day silk road” that traverses Russia and Kazakhstan to link a megacity in the heart of China with a key commercial hub in western Germany.

On Saturday, as part of his landmark visit to Germany, Chinese President Xi Jinping is set to visit the last stop on the “Yuxinou” rail line, an industrial feat that promises to revolutionise transport between Europe and Asia.

Duisburg is a steel-making town of around half a million on the confluence of the Rhine and Ruhr rivers that boasts the world’s biggest inland port and is one of Germany’s most important transport and commercial hubs.

Despite the vast distances between them, it takes just 16 days for trains crammed with laptops and electronics to travel to Duisburg from Chongqing, a sprawling metropolitan symbol of rising China with a population of more than 30 million.

Xi is scheduled to welcome a freight train on Saturday afternoon as it completes a journey that has taken it through Central Asia, Russia, Belarus and Poland.

Source: The Economic Times

Ukrainian putschists can’t send army to Crimea

Willy Wimmer
Willy Wimmer

Ukraine’s acting president said the country could not use its army alone to stop Crimea from seceding, the latest sign that Crimean independence may be imminent.

Oleksandr Turchynov’s comments came after the Crimean parliament voted for independence ahead of a Sunday referendum on joining Russia, while Washington and Moscow engaged in one of the fiercest clashes since the Cold War.

The interim leader of Ukraine’s putschists said intervening in the Black Sea peninsula, where Crimeans have seized de facto control, would leave Ukraine exposed on its eastern border, close to Russia.

“We cannot launch a military operation in Crimea, as we would expose the eastern border and Ukraine would not be protected,” Turchynov told AFP.

Willy Wimmer, former vice president of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and state secretary at the German Defense Ministry, said the Black Sea territory might end up under US domination.

The veteran German politician warned more than a decade ago that NATO’s bombing of Yugoslavia was actually part of a US expansion plan.

Until the mid-90s however, all major powers agreed in international law, and in cooperation. But in the middle of the 90s, the US changed tack. They clearly no longer feel bound by international law.

The war in Yugoslavia was only the beginning, and since then, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Libya, have shown that the US would rather rely on military power.

Wimmer said the current government in the Ukraine is not legitimate. “I think it was a putsch, a coup d’état, what happened in Kiev. And what we heard in the news before, the OSCE and other international bodies are doing what they can to create a legal framework for a government which is not legal at all.”

Wimmer said the US puppets in Ukraine are co-operating with Nazi groups, a punishable offence in Germany and other European countries. Many ban all elements associated with Nazism, including Nazi symbols. The coup in Ukraine have left many Europeans fearful of what the US might plan next.

At a political rally in Bavaria this week the main speaker addressed the audience with an appeal not to forget the friendship with the Russian people.

Major parts of the world ignored by media in 2013

farmmurders
No news

Why do Americans often seem so clueless about the world outside their borders? The answer lies with what the three major U.S. television networks offered their viewers in the way of news during 2013.

Syria and celebrities dominated foreign coverage by ABC, NBC, and CBS – whose combined evening news broadcasts are the single most important media source of information about national and international events for most Americans. Vast portions of the globe went almost entirely ignored, according to the latest annual review by the authoritative Tyndall Report.

Latin America, most of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia apart from Afghanistan, and virtually all of East Asia – despite growing tensions between China and Washington’s closest regional ally, Japan – were virtually absent from weeknight news programmes of ABC, NBC, and CBS last year, according to the report, which has tracked the three networks’ evening news coverage continuously since 1988.

Out of nearly 15,000 minutes of Monday-through-Friday evening news coverage by the three networks, the Syrian civil war and the debate over possible U.S. intervention claimed 519 minutes, or about 3.5 percent of total air time, according to the report.

That made the Syrian conflict and the U.S. policy response the year’s single-most-covered event. It was followed by coverage of the terrorist bombing by two Chechnya-born brothers that killed three people at the finish line of last April’s Boston Marathon (432 minutes); the debate over the federal budget (405 minutes); and the flawed rollout of the healthcare reform law, or Obamacare (338 minutes).

The next biggest international story was the death in December of former South African President Nelson Mandela (186 minutes); the July ouster of Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi and its aftermath; the coverage of Pope Francis I (157 minutes, not including an additional 121 minutes devoted to Pope Benedict’s retirement and the Cardinals’ conclave that resulted in Francis’ succession); and the birth of Prince George, the latest addition to the British royal family (131 minutes)

The continued fighting in Afghanistan came in just behind the new prince at 121 minutes for the entire year.

The strong showings by the papal succession, Mandela’s death, and Prince George’s birth all demonstrated the rise of “celebrity journalism” in news coverage, Andrew Tyndall, the report’s publisher, told IPS. He added that “a minor celebrity like Oscar Pistorius (the South African so-called “Bladerunner” track star accused of murdering his girlfriend) attracted more coverage [by the TV networks – 51 minutes] than all the rest of sub-Saharan Africa in the months before Mandela’s death.”

Surveys by the Pew Research Centre for the People & the Press, among other polling and research groups, show that about two-thirds of the general public cite television as their main source for national and international news, more than twice the number of people who rely on newspapers, and about one-third more than the growing number of individuals whose primary source is the internet.

An average of about 21 million U.S. residents watch the network news on any given evening. While the cable news channels – CNN, FoxNews, and MSNBC – often get more public attention, their audience is actually many times smaller, according to media-watchers.

“In 2012, more than four times as many people watched the three network newscasts than watched the highest-rated show on the three cable channels during prime time,” Emily Guskin, a research analyst for the Pew Research Centre’s Journalism Project, told IPS.

As in other recent years, news about the weather – especially its extremes and the damage they wrought – received a lot of attention on the network news.

Last year’s tornado season, severe winter weather, drought and wild forest fires in the western states constituted three of the top six stories of the year, according to the report. Along with the aftermath of 2012’s Superstorm Sandy, those four topics reaped nearly 900 minutes of coverage on the three networks, or about six percent of the entire year’s coverage.

By comparison, the growing tensions between Japan and China in the East China Sea – which many foreign-policy analysts here rate as one of the most alarming events of the past year if, for no other reason, than the U.S. is committed by treaty to militarily defend Japan’s territory – received a mere eight minutes of coverage.

Two other major U.S. foreign policy challenges received more coverage. North Korea and the volatile tenure of its young leader, Kim Jong-un, received a total of 87 minutes, including 10 minutes to visiting basketball veteran Dennis Rodman, of coverage during 2013.

Events in Iran, including the election of President Hassan Rouhani and negotiations over its nuclear programme, received a total of 104 minutes of coverage between the three networks over the course of the year, nearly as much attention as was given the British royals.

Libya received 64 minutes of coverage, but virtually all of it was devoted to the domestic controversy over responsibility for the September 2012 killings of the U.S. ambassador and three other officials there. The Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria and the civil war and humanitarian disaster in the Central African Republic received no coverage at all.

As for the Israel-Palestinian conflict which Secretary of State John Kerry has made a top priority along with a nuclear deal with Iran, it received only 16 minutes of coverage in 2013. “Palestine has virtually disappeared from the news agenda,” noted Tyndall.

As has Latin America, which received virtually no attention, according to Tyndall who suggested that the lack of coverage may be due to the growth of Spanish-language networks here. “The assumption seems to be that anyone interested in Latin American coverage would likely speak Spanish and find it in that language.”

Altogether, the three networks devoted just under 4,000 minutes, or about 27 percent of total air time, to coverage of overseas stories or U.S. foreign policy. That was somewhat under the average amount of 25-year average. Indeed, the 1,302 minutes’ worth of stories focused on U.S. foreign policy marked a nearly 50-percent reduction from the average.

“In general, foreign policy coverage has risen when the president is bellicose,” according to Tyndall, who noted that such coverage had risen sharply as a result of armed conflicts during the administrations of the two Presidents Bush and fallen under Presidents Clinton and Obama.

But the collection by the National Security Agency (NSA) of “metadata” on U.S. citizens and of private conversations and email of foreign leaders as disclosed by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden – a story with both domestic and international repercussions – also placed among the top 10 stories of the year with 210 minutes of coverage. – IPS

The unity of European culture – a response to Alain de Benoist

roodt_dan_wiki

by Dan Roodt

Last month a very interesting interview appeared with French thinker Alain de Benoist in American Renaissance. One of its main ideas is that we are living in an increasingly fragmented world. As Benoist puts it:

To see solutions we must conceive of globalization as a dialectic. The more the world is homogenized, the more there is rebellion. Thus, the impulse that homogenizes the planet creates new kinds of fragmentation, new kinds of divisions. Sometimes this resistance can be excessive—it can take the form of terrorism, for example.

Benoist’s solution to this is “localism”, that we should think and work locally to create “liberated spaces”. He is also skeptical of politics as such, especially the party-political system and what he calls the “new class” of politicians, financiers and media. The Swiss system of direct democracy exercised at a local level is the best example of localism at work.

In essence, one has to agree with Benoist’s ideas and that peoples all over the world could benefit from a cantonal system whereby power is devolved down to the lowest level where each town or suburb, arondissement and so on, looks after its own education, health, security and economy. Of course, the globalist and centralist powers will resist such change. As we know so well here in South Africa, globalism and centralism are both forms of parasitism extracting wealth and power from citizens.

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Recently I read about an American initiative in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where a group of people wish to secede and form a new municipality called St. George. Within multicultural societies where people chafe under disparate, conflicting norms and standards, everyone wants to secede from something. Apparently underlying the desire of mostly suburban St. George to become independent from inner-city Baton Rouge, are squabbles over the schooling system, educational standards and the power relations between different racial/ethnic groups.

According to the black mayor of Baton Rouge, “Kip” Holden, the movement for the secession of St. George will fail. He is a member of the “new class” that Benoist speaks of, the global nomenklatura that is to be found in all countries and that sees us all as “the same”, to be mixed together so that ultimately there will only be one global consumer left, consuming the same global brands and having one universal, syncretic religion that will go under different names.

The question is: how do we advance the interests of locals against the powerful centralist bureaucrats, financiers and media moguls? For this struggle is not taking place in a vacuum, but amid the reality of geopolitical and financial power relations.

I daresay Benoist takes a somewhat acerbic view of the USA, referring to naive and contradictory statements by Ronald Reagan and Nelson Rockefeller. Similarly, he is justifiably critical of the absurdities of American feminism, exemplified by Judy Butler. He also questions another myth of American academe, that race and sex “don’t exist because they are social constructs; they are only what your mind says they are”.

Of course, South Africa has been so thoroughly Americanized when it comes to race and what is called “gender” that we know all about the absurd slogan: “Race and sex do not exist, but we must fight racism and sexism”. Even that modish, albeit tragic document known as the new South African constitution, expectorates these clichés in its eleven official languages.

However, if our struggle is to succeed, I believe that we must rise above our mutual gripes with one another. I do not know which is worse: America seen from France or France seen from America. An even worse case of mutual stereotyping and historical hostility is that between the USA and Russia, maintained by the continued existence of enough ICBMs to destroy the planet and most of the population in the northern hemisphere.

I feel so much in agreement with Benoist’s thinking – including his exaltation of smaller identities, tribes, etc. – that I can hardly be critical. But if I do have a critique of sorts it is that there is something very French – “hexagonal” as they say in France – about his view of America. This is no mere chauvinism, but like the rest of us, he is a prisoner of history. I get the sense that the relics of the cold war still influence our view of the world, this very new world with its “multicultural” populations and dependence upon technology and the internet.

In summary, both the internet and the end of the cold war have changed us radically and we should try and look at our problems in a new way, unlike George Soros and the American generals who are still fighting Russia.

Whence the title of this piece: “The unity of European culture.” I specifically omitted any reference to “Western” culture. When I grew up, we were taught at school that South Africa was part of the West, just like Britain, France, the USA or West Germany. Toynbee wrote about that West in his little book The world and the West, but we can safely say that that West is dead now. Increasingly, Europe and America are at loggerheads as the USA, being the sole remaining superpower, feels no need for Western European allies anymore. Instead of an alliance, NATO has become more of a colonial army with local recruits, lording it over Europeans and even extending its reach further and further eastwards, threatening to overwhelm Russia.

I really love America. Its culture of resilience, gun ownership and vestiges of race realism are very attractive, as attractive as European refinement and intellectualism. Benoist too, commends Americans for their honesty in at least keeping racial statistics, saying:

You can go to the government and find race statistics on everything, including crime and social patterns. The collection of these kinds of statistics is forbidden in Europe — certainly in France.

Benoist criticises us for not listening to each other’s music or watching each other’s films. Instead, the whole world just consumes American cultural products, in English or some translated form. But last night I watched a horrible French film that had come out earlier this year, a comedy called Les profs (The teachers).

Fortunately I fell asleep halfway as it was French in name only. It contained the same images of multicultural utopia encountered in Hollywood films, dished up with insipid humour.

The point is valid that, as a friend once put it: “I do not have to visit the USA, because I already have it in my living room.” However, that is not our main problem; being a vociferous critic of anglicisation in South Africa I will be forgiven for saying this.

Our main problem is that the global nomenklatura, the people that Alex Jones from Texas calls “the New World Order”, are applying a policy of “divide and rule” against us. If they have a project, it is one of world domination, a one-world government that will impose multiculturalism and sameness on all of us, whether we like it or not. They will probably have some kind of Spanish Inquisition or Guantanamo Bay torture squad hunting down people who do not accept that race is “social construct” or who cling to local identities and languages, if they do not have that already.

The one thing that I like about American movies is that there is usually one man (or woman, as feminism obliges) fighting the whole of the CIA, US government and system. Naturally, this is entirely unrealistic and fantastical, but at least US individualism still keeps open the possibility of resistance to the anonymous leviathan.

Perhaps the CIA and George Soros’s Open Society Foundation are using Toynbee’s views on Russia to steer their assault on that country. According to Toynbee, despite being Christian, Russia has never been part of the West. Interestingly, Toynbee saw communism in that country as “a Western weapon for waging an anti-Western spiritual warfare”. Despite the vast political changes since, most establishment American observers, both liberal and conservative, will agree with Toynbee’s statement from 60 years ago:

The Russian attitude of resignation towards an autocratic régime that has become traditional in Russia is, of course, one of the main difficulties, as we Westerners see it, in the relations between Russia and the West today. (The World and the West, p. 6)

On the other hand, if ever the CIA and American liberal NGOs had to engineer an orange revolution in Moscow and appoint some or other puppet pro-American leader there as they have done in so many East European countries, it will probably be the final nail in the coffin for all of us. Like no other so-called “Western”leader on the world stage, Vladimir Putin has come out in favour of nationality and sovereignty. So his demise will be a major triumph for the globalists and one-world people.

Over the next decade or three, the population of the African continent will double again while that of Europe will decline, and we may even include in that decline the 200 million white Americans. Already, Europeans make up less than ten percent of the world population, with five percent looming on the horizon.

The challenge for us is to overcome the ideological, military, cultural and linguistic divisions of the past in attempting to conceive of a unified European culture and worldview. Linguists are aware of just how close our languages are to one another. Notwithstanding all the universalist ideology of the European enlightenment, each one of us speaks a Germanic or Latin dialect, sometimes (as in the case of English) a mixture of the two.

I am always struck by the way in which philoligists such as Georges Dumézil, for example, could see European and even Indo-European civilisation as a coherent religious, mythological and cultural whole, stretching far back into history. In this respect, I do not agree with Benoist’s characterisation of America as being somehow “non-European”. And if Calvinism played a role in the USA, did it not influence Switzerland too, the country cited by Benoist as a model for us to look up to?

The juxtaposition between “old Europe” and “new America” does not hold either. Europeans went to the USA, not bereft of a tradition, but very much driven and sustained by one. The republicanism of America’s founding fathers was invented in Europe, notably in France, as we know. Much of American modernism consisted of the application of European avant-garde ideas over there, especially in architecture. For Mies van der Rohe and many others, America was simply a playground for experimenting with European modernity. Unfortunately, many decadent, postmodern ideas first dreamed up in Europe, such as cultural relativism, have also made their way to the USA, where they have informed US-style political correctness. Simone de Beauvoir is probably cited even more than Judy Butler or Andrea Dworkin when it comes to the notion that “patriarchy” must be abolished.

Regarding information technology, we have to recognise the sea change that has taken place and which has contributed to the current “deterritorialization”, to use another French term from Gilles Deleuze which has become globally fashionable. It would be a mistake to think of “Europe” simply as a continent. It is more of a civilisation, a Kultur, an idea, which has unfortunately been bureaucratized and given a bad name by Brussels.

To my mind, it has become high time to conceive of a non-territorial Europe which would include Russia, Serbia, Greece and the rest of the Orthodox world rejected by Toynbee and the classical “Western” theorists. It should include those non-mestizo Spanish-speaking nations of Latin America, as well as Australia and the pockets of European settlement in South Africa and elsewhere.

After all, Pan-Africanism includes everyone of African descent, whether they reside in the USA, the Caribbean, the UK, France or Africa itself. Whereas the anarchic competition between nation states has been a threat to many smaller European cultures, not to mention the cause of many catastrophic wars, Pan-Europeanism might be that ultimate “empire” that would ensure our survival and prosperity, being compatible with localism as Benoist astutely observes.

The tripartite rivalry between America, Europe and Russia is not conducive to European survival in the face of the demographic cataclysm already in motion.

We should support any form of a Eurocentric canton, be it in: Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Pretoria, South Africa; or Marseilles, France.

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Breivik-linked party joins Norway government

Anders Breivik, once Progress Party member
Anders Breivik, once Progress Party member

From spats over halal meat in Danish schools to asylum seekers in Sweden, anger about immigration has fuelled the march of populist parties across Nordic countries, leading one such group to the brink of government in prosperous Norway.

The anti-tax and anti-immigration Progress Party, which once had among its members mass killer Anders Behring Breivik, won 16 percent of votes on Monday and could be kingmaker in a new center-right coalition after eight years of center-left rule.

Its strength reflects both worries about an influx into the Nordics of asylum seekers from countries like Syria and economic migrants from Spain, as well as disenchantment with mainstream parties that have dominated the political landscape for decades.

“We’ll ensure a solid footprint in a new government,” Progress leader Siv Jensen said. “We have reason to celebrate.”

Even without entering government, right-wing populists have managed to toughen public policies ranging from immigration to euro zone bailouts, drag political debate to the right and become a permanent feature of the parliamentary landscape.

The backlash has surfaced even though Nordic economies have outperformed languishing southern European countries. Their success has attracted thousands of “euro refugees”, vying for scarce jobs as their home states endure grinding austerity.

Economic conditions may be different, but many voters around Europe share the same perception that the established parties are out of touch with ordinary people and their concerns.

From Greece to France and the Netherlands, unemployment and economic grievances have combined with suspicion of European integration, Islam and multiculturalism, to propel both the far right and far left.

In Italy, the grassroots 5-Star Movement, born of disgust at the entire political establishment, surged to prominence in a general election in February. Britain’s UK Independence Party has gained ground and spooked mainstream politicians by harnessing an anti-EU platform with hostility to immigration.

BACK FROM THE SIDELINES

Breivik’s killing of 77 people in Norway in 2011 initially set back hard right parties in the Nordics.

But the Danish People’s Party now has the support of nearly one in six voters. The anti-immigrant Sweden Democrats have almost doubled their support since the last general election to touch 10 percent, and Finland’s opposition Finns party stands second in opinion polls with 19 percent support.

Populist groups are nowhere near winning an election and the majority of Nordic voters still express tolerance to immigrants. But any of these parties could secure the balance of power and hold a coalition government hostage on issues like immigration.

Consensus around the post-war Nordic model of high taxes and generous welfare was long sustained by a homogenous society. But immigration, global competition and fear for jobs have put that ideal of equality based on civic trust under strain.

“There exist groups that don’t feel this trust,” said Swedish Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt. “These people as voters are more easily seduced by populist forces seeking short-sighted answers and which often are more or less hostile to immigrants.”

Rising immigration has been coupled with economic troubles that have seen iconic Nordic companies such as Ericsson and Nokia shed jobs. Worries about the affordability of welfare have put the once taboo subject of immigration high on the agenda.

The nightmare for mainstream Nordic parties would be the experience of Denmark’s last government, when an anti-immigrant party held the balance of power and pushed for tighter border controls that fuelled tension with European neighbors.

Under Denmark’s current center-left government, immigration had faded as an issue until controversy surfaced when it was discovered that halal meat, slaughtered under Muslim dietary laws, was being served routinely at schools and hospitals – raising protests by anti-Islam groups.

Danish Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt waded into the debate – earning the nickname “meatball Helle’ after calling for voluntary labeling of halal meat but also urging that traditional Danish food including pork dishes be served.

The construction of a mosque in Copenhagen sparked accusations from the Danish People’s Party that it was being used for radical Islamist groups.

In Sweden, immigration has become part of the mainstream debate in a country where 15 percent of people are foreign-born, the highest rate in the Nordics. Riots in poor immigrant suburbs of Stockholm in May led to further debate about how Sweden was integrating its immigrants.

“Immigration is questioned by pretty considerable portions of the populace,” said Folke Johansson, a professor of political science at Sweden’s Gothenburg University. “It’s largely been taboo to discuss these issues, and therefore other mainstream parties haven’t been able to discuss it. It was really an open goal once they (anti-immigration parties) arrived on the scene.”

In Finland, the Finns party, whose anti-euro rhetoric struck a chord with voters in 2011, when they finished a close third in parliamentary elections, aims to join the next government.

Formerly known as True Finns, The Finns leapt to prominence during the euro zone debt crisis by opposing bailouts for troubled countries. They effectively forced the government to demand collateral in exchange for helping Greece and Spain.

Calling themselves a “nationalistic and center-left working class party”, the Finns would curb immigration by trimming immigrant social benefits and adjusting refugee quotas to Finland’s financial situation.

These parties have benefited from media-savvy leaders. The Sweden Democrats’ Jimmie Akesson, whose aim is to reduce immigration by 90 percent, wears a suit and as a lawmaker has changed the party’s former image of street ruffians.

Populists are expected to poll strongly in many countries in European Parliament elections next May, surfing a wave of Euroscepticism due to the financial and economic crisis.

But analysts say these Nordic parties may have hit a ceiling in national elections and are facing greater pushback even as they complicate coalition politics around the region.

Hundreds of Swedish women posted photographs of themselves with headscarves across social media this year to protest an attack on a Muslim woman in Stockholm who was wearing a veil.

Community leaders worry about aggressive rhetoric against migrants, and there have been other attacks. But violent incidents in Nordic countries have been isolated compared with, for example, far right attacks on migrants in Greece.

Reinfeldt’s government recently made headlines by giving Syrians an automatic right of residence.

Support for Norway’s Progress is actually down from 22 percent at the last election four years ago, although the parliamentary arithmetic gives it more leverage.

“The way Progress communicates is somewhat old fashioned and a bit cheesy,” said Daniel Gaim, 37, a teacher. “But when it comes to real policy, they don’t differ much from other parties. I’m not very concerned about giving them a bigger influence.” – yahoo.com

Art of the world’s flight paths

The US and China may be the world’s biggest economic engines, but on this gorgeous map of the world’s flight paths, Europe glows brighter than either one.

The map, designed by a young Canadian GIS (geographic information systems) consultant named Michael Markieta, traces some 60 000 routes on major and regional airlines around the globe. The flight paths aren’t precise, but the departure and destination cities are. Marketa’s map shows relatively faint blue lines for each individual route and bright white nodes where multiple routes intersect or overlap.

One of the things that leaps out at first glance is the plethora of connections in the Eastern US, East Asia and most of all Europe, which makes sense given those regions’ wealth and population density.

Europe has the greatest concentration of short-hop flights. Germany’s Frankfurt International Airport is the busiest destination on the map, with 235 direct flights.

By contrast, almost the entire southern hemisphere is dim, save for a few bright spots in cities such as Sao Paolo and Syndey. The relative brightness of vacation spots like the Canary Islands compared to nearby African countries like Morocco highlights the persistent economic disparities in air travel patterns.

Africa remains poorly served by airlines, with Spain’s Canary Islands appearing brighter than major African cities on the map. Nonetheless you can roughly trace the continent’s outlines by the flights between coastal population centres.

The busiest US airport is Atlanta, but the Washington-New York-Boston corridor appears to be the most heavily travelled overall. A 2009 Brookings study found that the busiest city pairs were New York-Miami and Los Angeles-San Francisco.

Atlanta is home to the busiest US airport, though the densest concentration of flights is along the Atlantic seaboard.

Perhaps the most fascinating thing about the map is that there is no “base layer” tracing the outlines of countries or continents. Instead, the flight routes themselves sketch the edges of the world’s major land masses, because so many people live in and travel between coastal cities. – Slate

Eurozone unemployment hits all-time high: 19 million out of work

European unemployed queuing up in front of employment office

Eurozone unemployment levels have hit 12 percent – the highest in the history of eurozone record-keeping, since the currency was launched in 1999.

The average unemployment rate across the eurozone’s 17 constituent European Union countries rose from January’s initial 11.9 percent high to 12 percent in February, meaning a further 33,000 people were put out of work. Overall, 19.071 million are jobless across Europe.

Some countries, including Spain and Greece suffered unemployment rates as high as 26 percent over the month of February.

Spain and Greece have both been shaken by violent protests, with Greece experiencing a massive increase in suicides and attempted suicides in 2010 and 2011.

Conversely, the lowest unemployment rates are still to be found in Luxembourg (5.5 percent), Germany (5.4 percent), Austria (4.8 percent) and the Netherlands (6.2 percent).

Youth unemployment (under-25s) has also soared, leaving 5.694 million out of work in the EU 27 (3.581 million of whom were in the euro area).

In Greece, the figure of unemployed under-25s borders on 60 percent, while in Spain, 55.7 percent of the nation’s youth are still out of work.

In January, unemployment in the eurozone had reached a previous record high of 11.8 percent, according to the original Eurostat report, meaning it is continuing to rise, fueling concerns over the region’s economic crisis.

Some economic experts had forecast the rise in unemployment, especially after the earlier January figure was later revised upwards, to verge on 12 percent.

As the statistics relate to February, they do not yet take the impact of Cyprus’ bailout into account.

A separate survey, also released on Tuesday, indicated that the eurozone recession continued in the first quarter.

Within the last two weeks, Markit’s chief economist Chris Williamson aired serious concerns to AFP.

“Instead of the eurozone economy stabilizing in the second quarter, as many – including the ECB – have been hoping to see, the downturn could therefore intensify in coming months,”  he said, expressing unease over the prospect.

The eurozone PMI shrank in March. Although not as bad as estimated a couple of weeks ago, the PMI stood at 46.8 points in the most recent survey. A figure below 50 is indicative of economic contraction. The overwhelming worry is that manufacturing activity has weakened across the region.

While there has been steady trade and good gains with non-EU countries, the drag on manufacturing order from within the eurozone is still significant.

Spanish manufacturing hit an especially steep slump in February, which follows news that the government plans to revise its economic forecasts for 2013, from an initially anticipated 0.5 per cent decline to a 1 per cent decline.

They Cyprus crisis in the last week of March seems to have had little overall impact so far. However, its effects could potentially strike later on in the year.

“While in some respects it is reassuring to see the events in Cyprus did not cause an immediate impact on business activity, the concern is that the latest chapter in the region’s crisis will have hit demand further in April,” Chris Williamson told Reuters on Tuesday.

Europeans must leave South Africa

Brad Cibane

For ages, the country today known as South Africa was no more than a loose band of separate communities. The Nguni tribes, which settled on the Southern tip of Africa around the 10th century, neither considered themselves a single nation, nor did they consider the Khoisan people already inhibiting the area part of their collective, writes Brad Cibane in the Mail&Guardian.

The Dutch settlers, who committed to transforming the Cape from a refreshment station to a settlement in the 1670s, also did not envision forming a nation with the Khoisan or the Nguni tribes. The same is apparent for the English colonists who settled in the 1820s.

The settlers and the colonists divided the country among themselves into four separate states: the Colony of Natal, the Cape Colony and the Boer Republic (Orange Free State and Transvaal). The situation persisted until the early 1900s when, after a bloody war, the Volksraad and the British embarked on negotiations, which culminated in the South African Union Act of 1909. On May 31 1910 the Union of South Africa was formed as a British dominion.

The new Union of South Africa excluded non-Europeans from its constitutional structures. The exclusion awoke the natives to the reality of their status, and drew them closer together. The loose band of tribes united to speak in unison when the South African Natives Congress was transformed into the African National Congress in 1912.

The unjust marginalisation of natives (Ngunis and Khoisan) was codified in 1913 when the government enacted a law reserving more than 87% of land for the exclusive use of whites. The government coveted ultimately to dispel all non-Europeans, and to create a “Little Europe” in Africa.

The vision started to take shape in 1948 when the National Party came into power. The National Party’s policy of “separate developments” (or “apartheid”) anaesthetised the distinction between the English and the Afrikaners. Government rhetoric opted instead for the more generic term “Europeans”. It sought to unite all whites under the “European” banner. South Africa was for (white) Europeans.

The biggest hurdle that faced the new united nation was that European South Africa and black South Africa were very different. Thabo Mbeki characterised the differences vividly in his “two nations” speech. Thus, the task of building a single nation was prodigious and it befell not just the new “black government” but all South Africans.

The characteristic terms “black” and “European” were discarded, leaving a single South Africa occupied by Africans of all races. White South Africans who had been beneficiaries of a system that pillaged and oppressed on their behalf relinquished their “European” status and citizenship. Those aggrieved by the demolition of “Little Europe” packed their bags and headed elsewhere.

It appears, however, that there are citizens of “Little Europe” (or European-South Africans) remaining in South Africa today. The problem with these people is that they do not consider themselves South African (other than “Little Europeans”). They harbour the most regressive elements.

The corollary of a South African citizenship is that it entails not just the right to co-exist with other South Africans, but also the concomitant obligations of contributing to the betterment of the nation. Citizenship in the new South Africa entails discarding racial and cultural prejudices. For the citizens of former “Little Europe”, a citizenship in the new South African also entails giving up a privilege built on many years of domination.

The nuisance with citizens of “Little Europe” currently inhibiting South Africa is that they sit elevated on a platform of perceived betterness. They harp and lash harshly at government without rolling up their own sleeves to fight the good fight. They speak with nostalgia about the good old days when their citizenship did not entail obligations towards black folk. They speak of the black inclination towards crime but make no recognition of the root causes (poverty, illiteracy and inequality).

An apt example of a citizen of “Little Europe” is a (white) man who tells foreign media that the (“black”) government is responsible for his (white) son shooting his (white) girlfriend. He makes no mention of the gun culture in which he raised his son.

South Africa faces Herculean challenges and all South Africans must battle together. The first step toward winning the battle is taking ownership of all problems by all South Africans, black or white, rich or poor. Poverty, crime and and iliteracy should concern all residents the country with similar urgency.

South Africa belongs to South Africans, citizens of “Little Europe” must leave. “Little Europe” no longer exists.

Cibane, however, likes Afrikaans. He says it’s is a beautiful language, even though it’s rather heavy. People are often curious about the difference between Afrikaans and Dutch. Except for the semantic difference, Afrikaans is much lighter, although the accent is rather heavy. Unfortunately, Afrikaans is burdened by the Soweto uprising, Skhothens, Captonian thugs and, well, the National Party.

Many young South Africans refuse to speak the language. But, if you’ve seen 7de Laan, you’ll know that it is not impossible to make love to the South African variant of Dutch.

For a non-speaker, Afrikaans gets a plus because it is exotic. Many none speaker, who at least understand the language, will appreciate hearing, “jy is pragtig” instead of “you are beautiful.”

Cibane thinks Afrikaans does not handle vulgarity well, however.

A pre-racial conception of humanity?

Anton Wilhelm Amo

by Justin E. H. Smith

In 1734, Anton Wilhelm Amo, a West African student and former chamber slave of Duke Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel, defended a philosophy dissertation at the University of Halle in Saxony, written in Latin and entitled “On the Impassivity of the Human Mind.” A dedicatory letter was appended from the rector of the University of Wittenberg, Johannes Gottfried Kraus, who praised “the natural genius” of Africa, its “appreciation for learning,” and its “inestimable contribution to the knowledge of human affairs” and of “divine things.” Kraus placed Amo in a lineage that includes many North African Latin authors of antiquity, such as Terence, Tertullian and St. Augustine.

Why have we chosen to go with Hume and Kant, rather than with the pre-racial conception of humanity?

In the following decade, the Scottish philosopher David Hume would write: “I am apt to suspect the Negroes, and in general all other species of men to be naturally inferior to the whites. There never was any civilized nation of any other complection than white, nor even any individual eminent in action or speculation.”

Hume had not heard of Amo, that much is clear. But we can also detect a tremendous difference between Hume’s understanding of human capacities and that of Kraus: the author of Amo’s dedicatory letter doesn’t even consider the possibility of anchoring what individual human beings are capable of doing to something as arbitrary as “complection.” For Kraus, Amo represents a continent and its long and distinguished history; he does not represent a “race.”

Another two decades on, Immanuel Kant, considered by many to be the greatest philosopher of the modern period, would manage to let slip what is surely the greatest non-sequitur in the history of philosophy: describing a report of something seemingly intelligent that had once been said by an African, Kant dismisses it on the grounds that “this fellow was quite black from head to toe, a clear proof that what he said was stupid.”

Kraus, the rector of Wittenberg, had been expressing an understanding of the nature of human diversity that was, in 1734, already in decline, soon to be thoroughly drowned out by the fundamentally racist view of human populations as dividing into a fixed set of supposedly natural, species-like kinds. This is the view lazily echoed by Hume, Kant, and so many of their contemporaries.

In his lifetime, Amo was principally known as a legal theorist. His first publication, in 1729, which has since been lost (or, one might suspect, intentionally purged), was a jurisprudential treatise, “On the Right of Moors in Europe.” Here he argues, on the basis of a reading of Roman history and law, that in antiquity “the kings of the Moors were enfeoffed by the Roman Emperor” Justinian, and that “every one of them had to obtain a royal patent from him.” This meant, in Amo’s view, that African kingdoms were all recognized under Roman law, and therefore all Africans in Europe have the status of visiting royal subjects with a legal protection that precludes their enslavement.

Historically, this is highly implausible, since much of the continent of Africa was unknown to Europeans at the time of Justinian. Still, Amo’s understanding is remarkably different from, say, Kant’s account of global history, on which black Africans stood, from the very beginning and as if by definition, beyond the pale of history, and therefore led lives of no intrinsic value, lives that could only be given value through absorption into a global system dominated by Europe.

Scholars have been aware for a long time of the curious paradox of Enlightenment thought, that the supposedly universal aspiration to liberty, equality and fraternity in fact only operated within a very circumscribed universe. Equality was only ever conceived as equality among people presumed in advance to be equal, and if some person or group fell by definition outside of the circle of equality, then it was no failure to live up to this political ideal to treat them as unequal.

It would take explicitly counter-Enlightenment thinkers in the 18th century, such as Johann Gottfried Herder, to formulate anti-racist views of human diversity. In response to Kant and other contemporaries who were positively obsessed with finding a scientific explanation for the causes of black skin, Herder pointed out that there is nothing inherently more in need of explanation here than in the case of white skin: it is an analytic mistake to presume that whiteness amounts to the default setting, so to speak, of the human species.

The category of race continues to be deployed, not just by racists, but by anti-racists as well.

The question for us today is why we have chosen to stick with categories inherited from the 18th century, the century of the so-called Enlightenment, which witnessed the development of the slave trade into the very foundation of the global economy, and at the same time saw racial classifications congeal into pseudo-biological kinds, piggy-backing on the divisions folk science had always made across the natural world of plants and animals. Why, that is, have we chosen to go with Hume and Kant, rather than with the pre-racial conception of humanity espoused by Kraus, or the anti-racial picture that Herder offered in opposition to his contemporaries?

Many who are fully prepared to acknowledge that there are no significant natural differences between races nonetheless argue that there are certain respects in which it is worth retaining the concept of race: for instance in talking about issues like social inequality or access to health care. There is, they argue, a certain pragmatic utility in retaining it, even if they acknowledge that racial categories result from social and historical legacies, rather than being dictated by nature. In this respect “race” has turned out to be a very different sort of social construction than, say, “witch” or “lunatic.” While generally there is a presumption that to catch out some entity or category as socially constructed is at the same time to condemn it, many thinkers are prepared to simultaneously acknowledge both the non-naturalness of race as well as a certain pragmatic utility in retaining it.

Since the mid-20th century no mainstream scientist has considered race a biologically significant category; no scientist believes any longer that “negroid,” “caucasoid” and so on represent real natural kinds or categories. [1] For several decades it has been well established that there is as much genetic variation between two members of any supposed race, as between two members of supposedly distinct races. This is not to say that there are no real differences, some of which are externally observable, between different human populations. It is only to say, as Lawrence Hirschfeld wrote in his 1996 book, “Race in the Making: Cognition, Culture, and the Child’s Construction of Human Kinds,” that “races as socially defined do not (even loosely) capture interesting clusters of these differences.”

Yet the category of race continues to be deployed in a vast number of contexts, and certainly not just by racists, but by ardent anti-racists as well, and by everyone in between. The history of race, then, is not like the history of, say, witches: a group that is shown not to exist and that accordingly proceeds to go away. Why is this?

Philosophers disagree. Anthony Appiah identifies himself as a racial skeptic to the extent that the biological categories to which racial terms refer have been shown not to exist. Yet at the same time he acknowledges that the adoption of “racial identities” may often be socially expedient, and even unavoidable, for members of perceived racial minorities. Ron Mallon has in turn distinguished between metaphysical views of race on the one hand, which make it out to describe really existent kinds, and normative views on the other, which take race to be useful in some way or other, but not real. Malon divides the latter into “eliminativist” and “conservationist” camps, supposing, variously, that the concept can only be put to bad uses, and must be got rid of, or that some of its uses are worth holding onto. On his scheme, one may very well coherently remain metaphysically anti-realist about race but still defend the conservation of the concept on normative grounds.

But given that we now know that the identity groups in modern multicultural states are plainly constituted on ethno-linguistic and cultural grounds, rather than on biological-essential grounds, it remains unclear why we should not allow a concept such as “culture” or “ethnie” to do the semantic work for us that until now we have allowed the historically tainted and misleading concept of “race” to do. We have alternative ways of speaking of human diversity available to us, some of which are on vivid display in Amo’s early life and work, and which focus on rather more interesting features of different human groups than their superficial phenotypic traits.

It is American culture that is principally responsible for the perpetuation of the concept of race well after its loss of scientific respectability by the mid-20th century. Even the most well-meaning attempts to grapple with the persistence of inequality between “blacks” and “whites” in American society take it for granted at the outset that racial categories adequately capture the relevant differences under investigation (see, for example: Thomas B. Edsall’s recent column, “The Persistence of Racial Resentment“) . This may have something to do with the fact that the two broad cultural-historical groupings of people in this country, which we call “white” and “black” and which have been constituted through the complicated histories of slavery, immigration, assimilation, and exclusion, tend at their extremes to correlate with noticeably different phenotypic traits.

An African-American is likely to look more different from an American of exclusively European descent than, say, an Orthodox Serb is likely to look from a Bosnian Muslim. This creates the illusion that it is the phenotypic difference that is causing the perception of cultural-historical distinctness, along with the injustice and inequality that has gone along with this distinctness. This also creates the illusion of American uniqueness: that our history of ethnic conflict cannot be understood comparatively or in a global context, because it, unlike conflict between Serbs and Bosnian Muslims or between Tutsi and Hutu, is supposedly based on “race” rather than history, politics, and culture. But where people are living with a different historical legacy, as in much of European history prior to the high modern period hailed in by Hume and Kant, the supposedly manifest phenotypic differences between “blacks” and “whites” can easily recede into the background as irrelevant.

Amo did not meet a happy end in Germany. His original manumission and education appear to have been a strategy on the part of Duke Anton Ulrich to impress Tsar Peter the Great of Russia, who had recently adopted his own chamber slave, Abram Petrovich Gannibal, as his own son. Gannibal would go on to a career as a brilliant engineer, military strategist, and politician; Amo, for his part, would be largely abandoned by his sponsors when the geopolitical winds shifted, and Russia fell off the duke’s list of priorities.

For a while the African philosopher eked out a living as a tutor in Jena and Wittenberg, and in 1747, after being made the butt of a libelous broadside accusing him of falling in love with a woman beyond his station, he returned to West Africa in disgrace. A French seafarer, David-Henri Gallandat, finds him there a few years later, and writes of meeting a man who “was very learned in astrology and astronomy, and was a great philosopher. At that time he was around 50 years old… He had a brother who was a slave in the colony of Suriname.”

The hopefulness of the 1734 dissertation was now long behind him. It is not known when Amo died, or under what circumstances. What we can say for certain is that he would not spend his final years as a successor to Augustine and Terence, but rather in the degraded position where someone like Kant supposed he belonged: outside of history, philosophically disenfranchised and entirely defined by something as trivial as skin color.

As long as we go on speaking as if racial categories captured something real about human diversity, we are allowing the 18th-century legacy of Kant and Hume, which was never really anything more than an ad hoc rationalization of slavery, to define our terms for us. We are turning our back on the legacy of Anton Wilhelm Amo, and of his European contemporaries who were prepared to judge him on his merits.


FOOTNOTES

[1] This is not to deny that there are limited contexts in which self-reporting of “racial” identity may be informative in a local or regional context. It is indeed helpful for a doctor to know, within the context of the American health-care system, the “race” of a patient. What it does mean to say that race is no longer a legitimate scientific category is that this limited, contextual helpfulness tells us nothing about a natural kind or real subdivision of the human species. The category of “race” can be useful in a local, medical context to the extent that it often correlates with other, useful information about tendencies within a given population. But this population need not be conceptualized in terms of race. Race is a dummy variable here, but not of interest as such.

Justin E. H. Smith teaches philosophy at Concordia University in Montreal.This piece appeared in the New York Times